Economic Crisis Management in Hospitality and Tourism Industry

INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY OXFORD BROOKES UNIVERSITY, GURGAON Issues in International Hospitality and Tourism Management U 54082 Module leader: Ms. Bandana Rai Submission: ECONOMIC CRISIS IN HOSPITALITY & TOURISM INDUSTRY Submitted by: Pavitra Mehrotra Student Id: 010109029 Abstract In the recent scenario, hospitality and tourism sector has become an important part of daily life but which is now experiencing multiple challenges because of the global economic crisis.Besides tourism, many other industries are in a position to create affluence and economic development opportunities, which also considered difficult to develop. After a significant reduction in 2009, tourism industry boomed strongly in 2010 and 2011 the international tourist arrivals were predictable to increase considerably. As tourism is a steadily growing sector, and a more globally connected, which is already indulged with a maximum population, so in such environment it is often considered di fferent to think about Crisis Management. Related essay: Relationship Between Hospitality and Tourism Accompanying material: Advertising in Tourism IndustryBut this thing is often neglected and also mostly considered a task to be only thought upon when Crisis actually takes place. Purpose This research study is done to know how financial crisis occurs in tourism industry and how it can be overcome. So this research article named Economic Crisis in Hospitality and Tourism Industry will tell about the impact of economic crisis on this industry and the recommendation to overcome it. Methodology It was an attempt to determine the impact of Economic Crisis in Hospitality Industry, and its main objectives were: * To investigate negative effects of economic crisis in this industry. To investigate the possibilities and importance of preventive crisis management within corporate framework. * To recognize the importance of crisis planning and organizational measures. Keywords: hospitality, tourism, crisis, economic uncertainty, growth, and tourism market Paper Type: Research Paper Introduction The word â€Å"crisis† is derived from the Greek word â€Å"krisis†, which means differentiation. (Dirk, 2003). In legal terms, crisis was used to describe the differentiation i. e. eparation between actual and proposed situation. National economics was the first to use crisis for its operations. Their business administration started to look into the matter when the conditions were getting worse due to shortage of crude oil in 1970s. The company was unable to solve this oil shortage due to lack of situation management, so this laid the consequence of coping with crisis. Crisis Management, the term usually refers to change of tasks and procedures done when a crisis materialize.Different types of crisis management and correlating activities are categorized in regards to the process and differentiation between different phases. Crisis Management as a system refers to the group of people who are responsible for crisis management activities. Mainly middle and lower level e mployees and the external factors join with the upper management as essential part of crisis. Although crisis management has abided through various attempts of explanations and theories, but till now none of the standards have been found to overcome it.Crisis management should be implicit as a preparation to avoid uncertain damage or negative effects. Taking the process of crisis management into consideration, the prevention of actually surviving with the crisis is acknowledged. Therefore, both the activities of prevention and struggling should be comprehended to crisis management as should be apprehended as a comprehensive management problem. This part of crisis management is dependable on crisis terminology, both part of regular official planning are also independent from it. Literature ReviewAs quoted by Krystek and Schulten â€Å"Business administration predominantly terms crisis as a process that negatively influences the development of a company to a considerable extent† (Krystek, 1987; Schulten, 1995). According to this the crisis either endangers or makes the survival of the affected company impossible. In words of Burtscher, â€Å"†¦ a company should only be spoken of when the achievements of existential or dominant goals, which are decisive factors in the survival of the entire system, are seriously endangered. † (Burtscher 1996, p. 31).Another group of authors Sonmez, Bachmann and Allen in 1994 defined tourism crises in even more concrete terms as â€Å"†¦ any occurrence which can threaten the normal operations and conduct of tourism destination’s overall reputation for safety, attractiveness, and comfort by negatively affecting visitors’ perceptions of the destinations; and, in turn, cause downtown in the local travel and tourism economy, and interrupt the continuity of business operations for the local travel and tourism industry, by the reduction in tourist arrivals and expenditures. (Sonmez et. al. 1994, p. 22). Later after 2 years in 1996, Scheler defines crisis management as: â€Å"†¦. measures of all types which allow a business to cope with a suddenly occurring danger or risk situation in order to return as quickly as possible to normal business routine. † (Scherler, 1996, p. 17). Another author Weinberg and Konert in 1985 argued that ‘†¦subjectivity experienced through the product, the service, the contribution made to the consumer’s quality of life†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Weinberg and Konert, 1985, p. 85).Years later Haedrich in 1998, proved that in year 1991, ‘only 40. 6 percent of the companies interviewed were in a position to implement their planned competitive strategies unhindered by social demands. The onset of a negative event will increase this number even further. (Haedrich, 1998). Luhmann also quoted â€Å"†¦that risk assessment and the readiness for risk acceptance is not only a physiological but mainly a social problem. We behave as it is expected by the relevant reference groups or as we-whether in accordance with or against the opinion-are socialized’. Luhmann, 1991, p. 11). According to Romeo ‘if a high degree of object-specific involvement exists, it can be assumed due to the greater load and a strong discrimination effect in comparison to positive stimuli. (Romeo, 1991). Another author Krielkamp described risk as ‘the possible negative consequences of the consumer’s behavior as perceived by the consumer. Seen from this point of view, risk during the travel decision is the deviation that can exist between the expected and the final, subjectivity experienced tourism product.If this perceived risk exceeds a certain tolerance value, the consumer tried to reduce this risk using reductions techniques product than for a material product. (Krielkamp, 1998). According to Ritchie and Crouch, it is important for the tourist to know the dangers that exist in a destination in order to adjust their behavior and, secondly, to set these in relation to the usual danger at the location. (Ritchie and Crouch, 1997). Tschiderer’s defines the holiday location product as ‘a bundle of market services, which are made up of constant core part and a derived variable offer’.And the natural offer as a core service of the service bundle, ‘with a few exceptions, is the core of holiday tourism and, therefore, the deciding element of the services’. (Tschiderer’s, 1980) â€Å"ECONOMIC CRISIS IN HOSPITALITY & TOURISM INDUSTRY† Tourism has an important impact on economies, societies and cultures of countries. From boosting economic growth to improving the social fabric and material resourcing to improve living conditions, the tourism has started to act upon.It’s obvious that tourism contributes to economic and social process, but the strength of action differs remarkably from region to region depending upon the level of Obviously, tourism contribution to economic and social progress, the strength of its action differs significantly from country to country depending on its level of development and the regimen attended on them. As with the most industries hospitality and tourism sector is also experiencing number of challenges as a result of global economic crisis.The industry is feeling the impact of a reduction capital market and non-mandatory spending by both corporate and individual customers. Tourism has suffered a lot during the global economic crisis; there was a turn down of 4% of international tourist arrivals in 2009, and revenues from international tourism fell by 6% by 2009. Motivations of travel for 2011 have been to traditional tourist destinations (58%), while 28% wanted to discover new destinations. (Global Financial Crisis Bulletin, Protiviti, 2009) Based on existing forecasting, the quarterly increase in hotel RevPAR is not expected until the second the second quarter of 2010.Corporate travel which ac counts to 18% of airline revenue has also decreased consecutively as companies all around the world are getting determined to reduce costs. With partial expansion contingencies, many hotels and companies are looking forward to improve the capability of their sales and marketing expenditure and maintaining prevailing brand value so as to gain customer loyalty and market share. According to a new report of UNWTO â€Å"2011 International Tourism Results and Prospects for 2012† during the year 2011 tourist arrivals grew up by about 4% to a total of 980 million.As published in the report, in 2012 the same will continue to grow, at a slow pace most likely very close to one billion tourists. The increase in 2011 was 4. 4% (980 million in the year 2011, compared with 939 million in the year 2010). (Universitatea Danubius Galati, 2012) Tourism development during Global Economic Crisis Tourism industry in the recent decades has proved to be an important element in the economic growth. The increasing number of tourists, tourism business growth, but also being an area that is still a major employer in the labor market motivates positive development of the global Hospitality & Tourism sector.The involvement of tourism industry in global GDP is striking 9% with only slightly smaller than the banking sector representing 11%, but higher than the automotive industry that is 8. 8%. This figure is itself very impressing, but taking into consideration the global situation becomes even more valuable. The year 2011 was characterized by a deadlock in the global economy that seems to recover in a series of events leading to political instability in countries in the Middle East and North Africa, and natural disasters, also as in earthquakes in Japan.The global economic crisis of 2008-2009 had a momentous impact on international tourism industry, the most severe so far in the last decades. International tourist arrivals declined by 4% and international tourism receipts by 6%. In 2010, the sector rebounded strongly (international tourist arrivals grew by 7%) demonstrating the resilience of tourism demand. (http://www. unglobalpulse. org/projects/rivaf-research-economic-crisis-tourism -decline-and-its-impact-poor) The Impact of Economic Crisis on Tourism and Hospitality Worldwide:Businesses have reported a declination in sales of lodging, food service; events and other hospitality products and some have closed their doors forever. The declination has resulted not only from smaller number of customers in hotels, restaurants, conference and convention centers, etc. , but also from a momentous decline in the average expenditure per guest (Pizam, 2009) The decline in international tourism in 2009 was felt globally, but specifically affected destinations with a higher dependence on the European and US source markets.All world regions suffered a decline in international tourist arrivals with the exception of Africa. By income level, low-income countries have been less adversely affected by the global crisis and have recovered comparatively faster. Business tourism was more affected than other segments, but available information does not allow for a detailed impact analysis by a segment. Employment in tourism was less impacted and tended to recover quicker than in other economic sectors according to data on employment in hotels and restaurants (the available proxy used in there port to evaluate the impact of the crisis on tourism employment).The recession had caused serious problems for luxury hotels all around the world. However, many hotels in international markets, especially the ones catering to leisure travelers, were not as much of affected. The popularity and growth of the luxury hotel sector in recent years commend that a strong return may not be idealistic (Barsky, 2009). (UNWTO, 2010) More specifically: * Europe ended the year 2009 by 6% declination. Destinations in Central, Eastern and Northern Europe were predominantly poorly affe cted, as compared to the results in Western, Southern and Mediterranean Europe that were relatively better. Asia and the Pacific (? 2%) showed an unexpected rebound. The second half of 2009 measured a 3% growth, reflecting enhanced regional economic results and scenarios. * In the Americas (? 5%), the Caribbean returned to growth in the last four months of 2009. * The Middle East (? 6%), though far-far better from the growth levels of previous years, had a positive second half in 2009. * Africa (+5%) was a strong performer, with sub-Saharan destinations doing particularly well business. (Q Finance, 2012) Crisis Handling StrategiesThe further area of crisis management concerns with the application of basic courses of action for crisis handling. The basic aim of crisis handling strategy is the pressure of the developments of the effects caused by negative consequence of global economic crisis. The forms of a crisis handling strategy can be either of the two i. e. Offensive handling an d defensive handling. 1. Offensive handling strategy: The aim of an offensive handling strategy is to timely and systematically implement the measures that eradicate and contains the cause and the effects related to identifying the problem area.To make this handling strategy work the organization must be prepared, intended and independently, to accept all the parts of activities, particularly customers, stakeholders and the state, that something has not worked as anticipated. An essential part of the offensive handling strategy is the attempt to eradicate the causes of the problems. Despite large number of efforts, there will remain always some problem areas for which this is not possible; for example, natural disasters. In such cases, a long-term well thought-out offensive strategy can be used to agree to and capitalize on the event. Dirk, 2003) 2. Defensive handling strategy With a defensive handling strategy, it is taken in consideration without knowing the consequences and knowl edge of the circumstances, not to act upon them, but to wait to react in order to bring the situation under control. The aim is to elude the crisis as far as possible and not to strengthen the circumstances with an individual’s action. In practice, the defensive handling strategy can be often observed. This is certainly also affected by the verity that offensive handling strategy and information given come with unknown attention in the preliminary stage. The greater scope with regard to handling and structuring but also the sensibleness of voluntarily talking on social responsibility means that an offensive handling strategy has a lot going for it. If the crisis is understood in such terms, it offers the chance to develop the organization further and ensures the influence in the various spheres of activities. † (Dirk, 2003) Crisis Planning and Organizational measures Planning is defined as a constructive process that defines how the organization’s stakeholders wa nt to see a future process to be developed.Hence planning is the opposite of brain-storming, ad-hoc decisions that are dependent on chance. In the crisis process and implementation process, there are three discrete stages i. e. Generic Planning, Contingency Planning and Preventive Planning (WEU, 1995). 1. Generic Planning- it reclines planning basis for possible crisis situations. The aim is to identify fundamental requirements and potentials. In addition, the ensuring planning stages should be made simple and plans that speed up the process. The questions that are related to organization’s structure as well as to the workflow organization that are much influence and unwavering by it.Generic planning is followed by the predictable investigation of certain crisis synopsis. The basic aim is to work out and evaluate different privileges in order to keep them accessible as tactics of action. This outline of planning is also known as ‘alternative planning’ or emergenc y planning. 2. Contingency Planning- In brief, contingency planning for predictable events enables the organization to get a boost up start that fundamentally helps the company to be more reliable about their decisions in critical situations like under pressure.The planning process in terms of detailing is limited to economic and human necessities as on the well as within boundaries of imagination. So a lot of attention is required when it concerns with situations for which there is very short reaction time left. 3. Preventive Planning- Whenever a negative is prevailing on an organization, then preventive planning is used. Depending on the need with which the task should be completed, i. e. depending on the speed with which the crisis is increasing, this can only happen through the adaptation of various option plans.The aim of these option plans, which are made up on the outline of preventive planning, is the application and preparation of feasible solutions to the increasing crisis situation. For all planning actions of preventive planning, the findings and result of previous steps and also the contingency planning are used as an initial point of start. Although these rare results of the applied contingency are being used in this application, the use of the least part of the contingency plan considerably shortens the preventive planning process.It is important to think through crisis planning and organizational preparation in good times as it is to be implemented in reality. With its implementation, one of the essential factors for a successful crisis management is met (Mileti and Sorensen, 1987; Reilly, 1987) Conclusion In 2011, world tourism has emerged fully from the crisis, say experts unanimously. Trend of increasing profits and the number of tourists will continue over the next few years, and this year could be even set a new record for number of trips, reports World Travel Monitor Forum.As shown in the statistics world tourism industry activity increas es in importance. The main index, tourist arrivals, is increasing, and sales in 2011 of 4. 4% are significant. According to the WTO officials, tourism is very important in emerging economies, tourism affects the entire economy by reducing debt, trade deficit and creating jobs. Besides the critical economic dimension, tourism is very important socially and culturally, favoring communication between different cultures, it can have an influence on mentality and geopolitical developments worldwide. Bibliography * Barsky, J. 2009). Luxury Hotel and Recession: View from around the World. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. lhw. com/download_s/230. pdf. [Accessed 25 October 12] * Burtscher, J. G. (1996). Wertorientiertes Krisenmanagement, Diss. * Dirk Glaesser, 2003. Crisis Management in the Tourism Industry. Edition. Butterworth-Heinemann. * Haedrich, G. (1998a). Kommunikationspolitik. In Tourismus- Management (G. Haedrich et al. , eds) pp. 379-403, de Gruyter. * Krielkamp, E. (1998). Stra tegisches Planung in Tourismus, In Tourismus- Management (G. Haedrich et al. , eds) pp. 287-324, de Gruyter. Krystek, U. (1987). Unternehmungskrisen. Gabler. * Luhmann, N. (1991). Soziologie des Risikos. de Gruyter. * Pizam, A. (2009). The Global Financial Crisis and Its Impact on the Hospitality Industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, 301 * Protiviti. 2009. Global Financial Crisis Bulletin. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. protiviti. in/en-US/Documents/Newsletters/Global-Financial-Crisis/FinCrisis_Bulletin061909. pdf. [Accessed 24 October 12]. * Rirchie, B. and Crouch, G. (1997). Quality, price and the tourism experience. In Quality Management in Tourism (AIEST, ed. Vol. 39, pp. 117-39, AIEST. * Romeo, J. (1991). The effect of negative information on the evaluations of brand extensions and the family brand. In Advances in Consumer Research, Proceedings, (R. Holman and M. Solomon, eds) Vol. 18, pp. 399-406. * Scherler, P. (1996). Management der Krisenkommuni kation. Helbig & Lichtenhahn. * Schulten, M. F. (1995). Die Erlebnis-gesselschaft. Campus Verlag. * Sonmez, S. F. , Backman, S. J. and Allen, L. R. (1994). Managing Tourism Crises. Clemson University. * Tourism and Hotels Industry | Market Analysis and Trends – QFINANCE. 2012.Tourism and Hotels Industry | Market Analysis and Trends – QFINANCE. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. qfinance. com/sector-profiles/tourism-and-hotels. [Accessed 28 October 2012]. * Tschiderer, F. (1980). Ferienortplanung. Paul Haupt Verlag. * Universitatea Danubius Galati. 2012. Acta Universitatis Danubius. A’conomica. [ONLINE] Available at: http://journals. univ-danubius. ro/index. php/oeconomica/article/view/1256. [Accessed 24 October 12]. * Weinberg, P. and Konert, F. -J. (1985). Vom Produkt zur Produktperson-lichkeit. Absatzwirtschaft, 2, 85-97. * World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). 012. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. unwto. org/media/news/en/p ress_det. php? id=5361. [Accessed 25 October 2012]. Article Summary-1 Zahed Ghaderi and Ahmad Puad Mat Som (2012). Impacts of Global Economic Crisis on Tourism Business in Penang. South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage. 5, pp. 08. Key Point-1 This article tells us about the impacts of recent economic crisis on tourism business in Penang (Malaysia). Tourism industry is always helpless to various crises and disasters, and its growth has been badly affected due to unpleasant situations.This paper was part of a research which has been conducted in Penang and uses qualitative research methodology. The level of impacts was different for industry and their businesses decreased for a certain period of time. It was found that the recent economic crisis formed many negative impacts for businesses in Penang and various strategies have been applied to lessen the negative effects. The paper also argues that the crisis had consequent effects and created many challenges for tourism industry. Key Point-2Recent economic and financial crises that affected tourism industry from 2007 through 2010 and further has thrown considerable attention on the role that crisis measures play in tourism. (Hall, 2010). The scope and size of impacts were so severe, that the World Tourism Organization estimated that international tourist arrivals fell by 4% in 2009, and many destinations in the world reported negative growth. As Penang is a mature tourist destination in Malaysia was also affected by recent global economic crises. Attracting many international leisure and business tourists gives threats and opportunities to this destination.Threats because these markets highly depend on global economic situations; and variation in the number of arrivals can create negative impacts for tourism industry. Comment and analysis The above study tells us that tourism industry in Penang was struck by global financial and economic crises. However they were not equal for different hospitality industrie s in Penang, although they approved that the crisis created many opportunities for their business. It is also important to note that although economic crises affected Penang as a tourist destination.Tourism business in Penang also looked at this crisis as an opportunity for organizational learning and they obtained valuable experiences on how to manage the difficult situations. They also believed that there is an immediate need to develop a tourism crisis management plan that integrates all tourism business in the State as the industry is very delicate to external factors. Article Summary-2 Carmen Babaita, Marilen Pirtea, Andreia Ispas (2010). Professional tourism – before and after economic crisis in the hotel industry from Timisoara, Romania. WSEAS Transactions on Business and Economics. , pp. 10 Key Point-1 This article demonstrates information on the concept of proficient tourism and its associated terms and how the global economic crisis has affected this valuable segmen t financially, particularly in tourism industry. The research was conducted in two periods: before and during the economic crisis and targeted 13 hotels of 3 and 4 stars from the hotel market in Timisoara. The study projected a series of related research regarding the tourism and services from the hospitality field, which was in the position of finding new ways to attract and retain business customers.Also according to authors Hotels surveyed in 2009-2010 except for a 4 Star Hotel said they were affected by the financial crisis. Key Point-2 According to the article, the competitive advantages for Romania as tourist destination were unusual destination markets; location in Central-Eastern Europe, the existence of large international hotel chains; knowledge of English by a large part of the young population; upcoming professional specialization of the Romanian companies with the opportunity to become trusted partners for any global organizations, also placed in Romania.Taking into acc ount the addition of the professional travel motivation in the definition of tourism and tourists, there were numerous clashes of opinion, having prevailed the opinion that professional tourism produces the same economic effects at the destination of the traveler or visitor as the recreational tourism; these effects can be: an increasing or a stimulating economic activity, an increased turnover of firms specialized in tourism benefits and an increased revenue from tourism balance. Comment and analysisAccording to the above study, it can be analyzed that the economic crisis had a major affect on the hotel market activity in Timisoara. The hotel management has always been in a position to find intellectual and resourceful solutions to attract customers, which are scarce and more demanding. Accommodation are still limited, their number is significantly lower to the accessible needs. Starting a project with European funds that include design, site plan of new hotels, even hotel chains, could be the key to improve job prospects, the number of events, business tourists coming to western markets.Article Summary-3 Protiviti: Risk and Business consulting. (2009, June). Impact of the Economic Crises on the hospitality, tourism and leisure industry. Publisher U. S Available from: http://www. protiviti. com/en-US/Documents/Newsletters/Global-Financial-Crisis/FinCrisis_Bulletin061909. pdf [Accessed: 17/09/12. ] Key Point-1 The current article discusses about the analysis of existing conditions faced by the hospitality, travel and leisure industry, along with a review of the significant issues the management should have concentrated as the economic rises continues to run its run as an economic recovery begins. According to the article the financial crises has impacted both domestic and the domestic i. e. U. S market as well international travel market. The occupancy ratio of domestic travelers to international travelers is approximately 4:1 (83 percent v/s 17 percent). In r esponse many hotels have reduced number of guests, which is one of the largest expenses at both the hotel and corporate levels. Key Point-2With limited expansion opportunities, many hotels and companies are looking to improve the effectiveness opportunities, many hotels and companies are looking to improve the effectiveness of their sales and marketing spend and maintain existing brand value to gain customer loyalty and increase market share. Their strategies include print and online advertising, and marketing directly to national groups that initially have arranged events at their properties. As in other industries, cost management and controls spend have become important areas of focus for owners and operators.Centralizing or outsourcing business processes (e. g. , payroll, accounts payable) is among numerous strategic initiatives hospitality management is undertaking. Comment and analysis Based on the article it can be concluded that companies are using different strategies to ma intain themselves during the global economic crises. For firms in hospitality and tourism industry, it is important for management to maintain customer expectations, manage to maintain customer expectations, manage costs, optimize cash flows and working capital, and maintain debt obligations.Additionally, many in the industry are using the current economic crisis as an opportunity to gain market share. Through increased marketing and advertising initiatives, companies are striving to maintain existing customers while also positioning themselves to be top-of-mind for industry consumers once the economy begins to recover. Summary-4 Crises Management in Hospitality Industry: Case of Croatia Cizmar, Sanja: Vlahov, Antonio. An Enterprises Odeyssey. International Conference Proceeings: 1576-15-89, 4, 20. Zagreb: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Economics and Business. (May 26-May 29, 2010)Key Point-1 This article tells us about the 2009 economic on the hospitality in Croatia. It tells tha t a strategic approach to the crisis management in the hospitality industry both on government and private level sectors. On government level, the article examines the overall process of dealing with the crises as well as pre-crises planning. The research findings tell that the Croatian government, got failed in the pre-crises management but in tourism sector it handled the crises in a very effective way, thus assuring the country tourism results in the year of global economic crises.A survey done in on a small fraction of Hospitality companies in Croatia, revealed that top level managers understood the importance of crises management measures and also they were regular in their implementation. The authors also concluded that global economic crises cannot be stopped but, the impact on hotel industry can be limited both by private organizations and public sectors. Key Point-2 In 2009, world economy has faced a rare crisis, activating severe recession that critically affected tourism industry.In Croatia two percent drop of overall tourist arrival, and one percent increase of overall overnights has been recorded in 2009 in comparison to 2008. The drop in tourism receipts of Croatia has been much stronger than the drop in the arrivals, and is expected to reach 15. 5% compared to next year. A typology of crises, which is important for further discussion in the paper, is based on the types of domains or origins or causes of the crises. Complexity of the crises’ origins affects that lifecycle and duration of the crises, thus impacting its intensity and impacts to organizations. Since tourism industry is very ulnerable to different crisis, the scope of crises impacts in tourism is multilevel. Out of all 24 crises management measures, 14 measures have significant correlation between managers have significant correlation between managers’ perception of importance and its usage. Four measures belong to group ‘operation, investment, and environmentâ₠¬â„¢ and three measures to group ‘human resources’. Comments & Analysis This article analysis’s the way of coping with the economic crisis on government and company managerial level in the hospitality industry of Croatia, with regards to 2009 economic crisis.In deep economic crisis as it was in 2009, which has had a significant impact on the hospitality industry market and financial position, only synchronized actions of government and companies’ management may generate positive results in crisis prevention and especially in a phase of coping with the crisis. Empirical survey shows that top managers of Croatian hospitality companies’ management may generate positive results in crisis prevention and especially in a phase of coping with crisis.The survey should be done on the same sample of hospitality companies in order to reveal which company has succeeded to recover operational performance in a shorter period. Parallel, the research should aim to r eveal which group of crisis management measures generates the fastest recovery of companies operating performance in a post crisis period. Article Summary-5 Carmen Babaita, Marilen Pirtea, Andreia Ispas (2010). Professional tourism – before and after economic crisis in the hotel industry from Timisoara, Romania. WSEAS Transactions on Business and Economics. 7, pp. 10Key Point-1 This article demonstrates information on the concept of proficient tourism and its associated terms and how the global economic crisis has affected this valuable segment financially, particularly in tourism industry. The research was conducted in two periods: before and during the economic crisis and targeted 13 hotels of 3 and 4 stars from the hotel market in Timisoara. The study projected a series of related research regarding the tourism and services from the hospitality field, which was in the position of finding new ways to attract and retain business customers.Also according to authors Hotels sur veyed in 2009-2010 except for a 4 Star Hotel said they were affected by the financial crisis. Key Point-2 According to the article, the competitive advantages for Romania as tourist destination were unusual destination markets; location in Central-Eastern Europe, the existence of large international hotel chains; knowledge of English by a large part of the young population; upcoming professional specialization of the Romanian companies with the opportunity to become trusted partners for any global organizations, also placed in Romania.Taking into account the addition of the professional travel motivation in the definition of tourism and tourists, there were numerous clashes of opinion, having prevailed the opinion that professional tourism produces the same economic effects at the destination of the traveler or visitor as the recreational tourism; these effects can be: an increasing or a stimulating economic activity, an increased turnover of firms specialized in tourism benefits an d an increased revenue from tourism balance. Comment and analysisAccording to the above study, it can be analyzed that the economic crisis had a major affect on the hotel market activity in Timisoara. The hotel management has always been in a position to find intellectual and resourceful solutions to attract customers, which are scarce and more demanding. Accommodation are still limited, their number is significantly lower to the accessible needs. Starting a project with European funds that include design, site plan of new hotels, even hotel chains, could be the key to improve job prospects, the number of events, business tourists coming to western markets.

Analysis Of The Three Financial Models

IntroductionBankruptcy refers to the state of an individual who is unable to pay his or her debts and against whom a bankruptcy order has been made by a court. Such orders deprive bankrupts of their property, which is then used to pay their debts. Bankruptcy proceedings are started by a petition, which may be presented to the court by (1) a creditor or creditors; (2) a person affected by a voluntary arrangement to pay debts set up by the debtor under the Insolvency Act 1986; (3) the Director of Public Prosecutions; or (4) the debtor. (Smullen and Hand, 2003).If we assume that a corporation is a separate legal entity thus qualifying as a legal person, we can adopt the above definition to define bankruptcy in the context of the corporation or corporate bankruptcy as the state of a corporation that is unable to pay its debts and against which bankruptcy order has been made by a court. (Smullen and Hand, 2003).Analysis of the models for predicting bankruptcy.There are three main approach es to predicting bankruptcy which include: accounting analytical approach, option theoretical approach and the statistical approach. Becchetti and Sierra (2002: p. 2100).   Under the statistical approach corporate failure risk is analyzed through four widely known methods which make use of balance sheet ratios: linear or quadratic discriminate analysis, logistic regression analysis, probit regression analysis and neural network analysis.For the purposes of this paper we will limit our analysis to three basic financial models, which include the Z-Score model, the discriminant model and the Black-Scholes-Merton Probability. We also describe the application of these models in corporations.1. The Z-Score Bankruptcy Prediction ModelThe Z-score prediction model was developed by Altman in 1968. (Grice and Ingram, 2001: p. 53). The Z-score model applies multivariate discriminant analysis (MDA) and employs financial ratios as input variables to predict financial distress. (Tzeng et al, 200 7: p. 297). According to Grice and Ingram (2001: p. 53), Altman (1968) used a sample of 33 non-bankrupt manufacturing firms from 1946-1965. Grice and Ingram (2001) assert that despite the fact that the z-score model exhibit high accuracy rates using both estimation and hold-out samples, (95% and 84%), its generalizability to industries and periods outside of those in the original sample has received little attention.This model has be widely used in a variety of industries to evaluate financial conditions of firms and it is continuously being used in many business situations including bankruptcy prediction and other financial stress conditions. Grice and Ingram (2001) carried out a test on the z-score model based three basic tests which include the model’s ability to predict bankruptcy today as opposed to periods in which it was developed, the usefulness of the model in predicting bankruptcy in non-manufacturing as well as manufacturing firms and its ability to predict bankrup tcy in financial stress conditions other than bankruptcy.Their findings show that although the model is useful in predicting bankruptcy as well as other financial conditions, the models accuracy is significantly lower in recent periods than that reported in the original work by Altman (1968).Grice and Ingram (2001) also find significant differences in the model’s coefficients from those reported by Altman. Based on these findings, Grice and Ingram (2001) suggest that better accuracy can be achieved by re-estimating the model coefficients using estimation from periods close to test periods. In addition Grice and Altman (2001) find that the including non-manufacturing firms in the sample, further weakens the accuracy of the model.1.1 Application of the Z-Score modelCommercial banks use the model as part of the periodic loan review process; investment bankers use the model in security and portfolio analysis. It has been employed as a management decision tool and as an analysis t ool by auditors to assess their clients’ abilities to continue as going concerns (Grice and Ingram, 2001: p. 53).2. The Black-Scholes-Merton Model.According to Reisz and Perlich (2007) following from Black and Scholes (1973) and Merton (1974), the common stock of a firm can be seen as a standard call option on the underlying assets of the firm. It is assumed that shareholders have sold the corporation to creditors, and hold the option of buying it back by paying face value (plus interest) of their debt obligations. (Reisz and Perlich, 2007: p. 2). On the other hand, using put/call parity, we can see shareholders as holding the firm’s assets (bought after borrowing money from creditors) as well as a put option with exercise price equal to the face value equal to value of debt.(Reisz and Perlich, 2007: p. 2). In the event where the where the firm value is below the exercise price, that is, where the price of the firm is below the face value of the debt at maturity, share holders can freely work walk away without repaying their debt obligations. (Reisz and Perlich, 2007: p. 2). This is similar to selling the firm to the bondholers at the face value of the debt. (Reisz and Perlich, 2007: p. 2). Reisz and Perlich, (2007: p. 2) asserts that such an equity-based valuation model can lead to better bankruptcy predictions.In a study by Hillegeist et al. (2004), it was found that the probabilities of bankruptcy backed out from the a Black-Scholes-Merton structural model are up to 14 times more informative that ones inferred from accounting-based statistics such as the Altman (1968) Z-score. (Reisz and Perlich, 2007: p. 2). However despite the merits of this Black-Scholes-Merton model, it does not provide any rationale for observed managerial (bounded) risk choices. (Reisz and Perlich, 2007: p. 3). In addition, probabilities of default (PDs) coming from this framework are miscalibrated. (Reisz and Perlich, 2007: p. 3).3. The Mutiple Discriminant ModelMultiple discriminant analysis (MDA) is a statistical technique employed in the classification of an observation into one of several a priori groupings, dependent upon the observation’s individual characteristics. It is primarily useful in the classification and/or prediction in problems where the dependent variable appears in qualitative form for example, male or female, bankrupt or non-bankrupt. Therefore the first step is to establish explicit group classifications. The number of original groupings may be two or more.The MDA model is advantageous in that it considers the entire profile of characteristics common to the relevant firms, as well as the interaction of these properties. Conversely, a univariate study can only consider the measurement used for grouping assignments one at a time. Another important advantage of the MDA model is the reduction of the analyst’s space dimensionality.   When analysing a comprehensive list of financial ratios in assessing a firm’ s bankruptcy potential, there is reason to believe that some of the measurements will have a high degree of collinearity or correlation with each other. (Altman, 1968).3.1 Application of Multiple Discriminant ModelFollowing its first application in the 1930s, the MDA model has been used in many studies and disciplines. In its earlier days it was used only in Biology and behavioural sciences. Today, the model has been applied successfully in financial problems such as credit evaluation and investment classification. For example, Walter made use of the model to classify high and low price earnings ratio firms, and Smith applied the model in the classification of firms into standard investment categories.BIBLIOGRAPHYA market-based framework for bankruptcy prediction. Alexander S. Reisz and Claudia Perlich. Journal of Financial Stability, 2007, Pages 1-47.  A real-valued genetic algorithm to optimize the parameters of support vector machine for predicting bankruptcy. Chih-Hung Wu Gwo- Hshiung Tzeng Yeong-Jia Goo   Wen-Chang Fang. Expert Systems with Applications Volume 32, 2007 Pages 397–408  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Bankruptcy†Ã‚  Ã‚  A Dictionary of Finance and Banking. John Smullen and Nicholas Hand. Oxford University Press 2005. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.   Ã‚  http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t20.e278Bankruptcy risk and productive efficiency in manufacturing firms. Leonardo Becchetti and Jaime Sierra Journal of Banking & Finance,  Volume 27, Issue 11,  November 2003,  Pages 2099-2120Tests of the generalizability of Altman’s bankruptcy prediction model. John Stephen Grice and Robert W. Ingram. Journal of Business Research Volume 54, 2001 Pages 53-61.Financial Ratios, Discriminant Analysis and the Prediction of Corporate Bankruptcy. Edward I Altman. Journal of Finance, Volume 27, Issue 4, September 1968, Pages 589-689.

Evaluation of Wikipedia

When students are assigned research papers, very commonly, professors will say, â€Å"Whatever you do, do not use Wikipedia. † Many who research find this website credible, others believe its information is completely false. This essay will evaluate the efficiency of Wikipedia as an online resource for researching purposes; it will discuss the freedom to alter material, the credibility of the website, as well as what good comes from the use of this website for research means.Many people believe Wikipedia is not a good, or credible, source to be used for research. Much of this comes from the possibility it gives for people to alter the content of any material information offered by the website. Wikipedia â€Å"enables any visitor to a wiki site to edit, add to, and even delete the content of any page on the site. †(Miller) This is factual because Wikipedia gives the opportunity for any person to edit information on any topic.For protection it is recommended that we †Å"remember to take a cautious view of what we think it tells us. †(Miller) The credibility of this website has decreased through the years thanks to professionals who have proved information in this website to be erroneous. This has obligated instructors who assign research assignments to restrict students from using this website as a source for information retrieval.Most teachers who assign research papers have as a goal to make students college ready in the sense of restricting students from plagiarism. â€Å"While supporting the goal of openness and verifiability, the username structure of the site provides complete anonymity for its editors and administrators, which renders the site constantly vulnerable to vandalism and fraud. †(Miller) We’ve discussed a variety of cons that Wikipedia has when used as a research resource, but there are also some good in this fast-growing website.One good that Wikipedia has is the numerous amount of information on many differ ent topics that it provides; regardless of the lack of credibility in its information it is noteworthy that some information of all is in fact true. Another benefit that comes from Wikipedia is the list of languages it offers its information in. Currently Wikipedia offers ten languages in which the information is provided; this gives the possibility for individuals around the world to research through the content provided by this website. The freely editable nature of Wikipedia enables contributors, lay or expert, across the world to share their knowledge easily. † (Patient-Oriented Cancer Information on the Internet: A Comparison of Wikipedia and a Professionally Maintained Database). Through the above I have mentioned the freedom for altering material, the credibility, as well as some positive aspects that come from Wikipedia as a research resource used by many. From my past experiences I can relate to events such as teachers not permitting me as a student to use Wikipedia a s a research source.Also from the vast information that this website provides I have found information that I wouldn’t be able to find elsewhere, not that I can believe much of it though. This website is growing, it is those from around the world who give a taste of their knowledge to the world through this website who are making this growth possible, but many others share nonsense and pure rubbish which is what has brought down this website’s credibility, and if those great minds in our world don’t step up, the growth of this website will come to an end.Works Cited Miller, Nora. â€Å"Wikipedia Revisited. † ETC: A Review Of General Semantics 64. 2 (2007): 147-150. AcademicSearch Complete. Web. 21 Feb. 2013. Yaacov R. Lawrence, et al. â€Å"Patient-Oriented Cancer Information On The Internet: A Comparison OfWikipedia And A Professionally Maintained Database. † Journal Of Oncology Practice 7. 5 (2011):319-323. Academic Search Complete. Web. 21 Feb. 2013.

Public Administration Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Public Administration - Research Paper Example On the other hand, employees expect the department to treat and motivate them with dignity and respect. Satisfying the needs and expectation of all stakeholders in policing organizations is quite challenging in the contemporary society. This paper examines some of the challenges involved in the management of police department. Roy, Jack and Novak (2002, p8) define management as â€Å"a process of working with employees in a humane manner for efficient and effective attainment of the organization’s goals and objectives†. In policing and other modern organizations, managing outcome and output are critical components of the management process (Stillman, 2012). In police organizations output are the activities, which a police department undertakes. Some of the activities include arresting offenders, assisting people with various problems, maintaining confidentiality and the manner in which the police officers conduct themselves. The outcomes are the results that occur from the police action and behavior. They include changes in the rate of crime, the attitude of the community towards the police and the level of contentment with the police service among other outcomes. Change in attitude and behavior of the public towards the law enforcement agencies is one of the major outcomes of the police (Ro y, Jack and Novak, 2002). In contemporary policing organization, managers of police departments are confronted with various challenges that involve integrating and balancing expectations between three important stakeholders, namely employees, the police organization and the community. The community keeps a watchful eye on the reaction and behavior of the police toward persons, the use (or misuse) of allocated resources within the police organization and how police department undertake various sensitive operations such as promotion, recruitment, prevention of crime among others. In addition, the community is

Income taxition law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Income taxition law - Essay Example Any household required to pay tax on gains that result from disposition of financial and real property2. Whether the gains are speculative, from business income or passive, from capital income, they are subject to tax. On the other hand, investors may make capital losses when the proceeds realised from asset disposal are less than the costs of asset acquisition. Capital gains are only realised when assets are disposed, and not when they are leased. From the information that is provided, the net capital gain for Chloe from the sale of shoe manufacturing factory premises is $1,570,000. This is calculated by subtracting the costs incurred in the acquisition of the factory premises from the proceeds realised from sale of the factory premises as shown. $ $ Selling Price 2,000,000 Goodwill 400,000 Compensation 60,000 Compensation 30,000 2,490,000 Purchase Price 800,000 Goodwill 100,000 Renovation Cost 20,000 920,000 (920,000) Net Capital Gain 1,570,000 The capital gains tax implication for this transaction is that only fifty percent of the net capital gains will be subject to capital gains tax because the factory premise was owned for a period of more than twelve months. Gains arising from assets that were purchased after 21st September 1999 are calculated using the 50% discount method3. An asset purchased and sold more than twelve months later is taxed on 50% of the gain while gains on assets held for less than twelve months do not qualify for an increased base of the fifty percent discount. Therefore, an amount of $ 785,000 will be subject to capital gains tax. There should be proper recording of the business transactions regarding the factory premises, commencing the date of acquisition to avoid paying more capital gains tax than necessary. There will be no benefit of small business concessions. A company whose annual income is more than $2 Million is not a small business. On the other hand, if the aggregate turnover for the current year is less $ 2 Million, then the business is a small business4. Capital Gain Tax Implications on PKY Pty Ltd An expense was incurred in acquiring the company, PKY Pty. There should be appropriate recording of transactions and costs associated with the acquisition and running of this company to ensure that capital gains tax is equitable. It is imperative to note any income that will is to be realised from rent is subject to tax. This is because rental income is subject to tax. Secondly, the retail business’ net proceeds will be subject to tax. In case, the aggregate income per year does not exceed $2 Million, then Chloe can benefit from small business concessions because the company will be categorised under small businesses. Capital Gain Tax Implications on Residential House The $800,000 residential house with $400,000 mortgage is not subject to any tax because all residential properties are exempt from taxation. Personal assets such as personal use assets, home and car are exempted from capital gains ta x. However, this does not apply to depreciating assets such as business equipment or fittings in rental property that are solely used for taxable purposes. To avoid payment of any tax there should be proper recording regarding the residential house cost. Also, the house should not be rented or be on more than two hectares of land, and must have a dwelling in it4. A dwelling is exempt from capital gain

Disccuss Mary Cassatt's The CHild's Bath 1893 in terms of one or two Essay

Disccuss Mary Cassatt's The CHild's Bath 1893 in terms of one or two ideas - Essay Example Also, Cassett shows her interest in Japanese woodblock print which is evident in this picture. The painting of a Child Bath is based on a mother cleaning a little child's feet in a tub of water (Art Institute of Chicago). The walls behind this cozy scene are covered in a wall paper decorated with a flowery pattern. The floor appears to be a carpet of some sort: designed intricately with flowers placed inside boxes. A jug is placed to the right side of the painting. The mother is fully dressed in a long gown and has a child placed on her knee. The child is looking down and is clothed with a single white cloth. The artist has used very vibrant colors in this painting. There are no shadows and there is a very bold brushwork used by the artist. She uses an asymmetrical style (Art Access).The shape of the woman and child's head, the basin and the pitcher are circular. The image also has a symmetrical striped pattern. Thus, the entire painting is in perfect asymmetrical form. This, along with Cassatt's decision to paint from an unusual position: above. Adler speaks of how to think about art in his book. In an interview with Luckman he claims art to be a technique which uses skill or expert to produce a piece. This is exactly what Cassatt uses in her work, technique to produce a perfect painting. While this painting is n

What do you stand for Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

What do you stand for - Essay Example The first line of action through which people utilize their freedom is by carrying out acts which enable them to satisfy their biological needs. The satisfaction of these needs creates an environment for us to express other freedoms. On a higher level, we can use a phenomenological freedom to pursue inquiry, and theoretical freedom to determine the logical consistency of the answers we obtain. From a scientific viewpoint, reliable predictions enable people to verify their answers in relation to perceptible experiences such as witnessed events and beauty. Finally, on the sociological level, the answers we obtain lead to changes in behavior that precipitate emotional growth, ultimately leading to psychological maturity. We are partly a product of where we are raised, and the experiences we encounter in life. It is parents and the immediate community who instill the norms and values that define a child’s behavior as he grows up. However, experiences fundamentally alter the beliefs and perceptions and, therefore, influence a person’s life view. Therefore, childhood background determines who we become, but experiences also play a part in this role. In addition, sometimes experiences may be so psychologically and emotionally moving that they override the background factors that determine a person’s nature. Therefore, it is possible for a person’s nature to change significantly when they are already physically, emotionally, and psychologically mature. This might have happened to John Wideman, and; therefore, he probably was not an anomaly. The American Dream is accessible to all legal citizens of the United States. Firstly; this is because of freedom the constitution bestows upon each and every citizen. The freedom of expression, freedom of religious and political beliefs, and freedom to undertake any action permissible under the law paves the way for any individual, be they poor, uneducated, mentally challenged, or physically disabled, to pursue

Controversies in Correctional Education Assignment

Controversies in Correctional Education - Assignment Example From this paper it is clear that  the differences between these problems and controversies include the number of complainants. The problems involve the juveniles and their supervisors or teachers, while the controversies are national debates involving the nation. As a result, the governments seem to address the issue on controversies more compared to the problems based on statistics.This research study discusses that ome of the employed supervisors lack the skill to manage these young offenders who are still undergoing human development and maturity. Lack of proper supervision may equally lead to delinquent and problematic children instead of rehabilitated children. The problem of blending these juveniles and criminal sentences has caused prolonged stays in the correctional facilities. This does not only bias the juveniles, but also contributes to consumption of disproportionate share of facility resources.  The more important issues in relation to education include recidivism, a nd the poor supervision and treatment in the juvenile correction centers. The teacher has a duty to ensure change in these juveniles and this raises concerns of the high rates of recidivism.  The numbers of juveniles in correctional facilities are on the increase based on the changing laws. Juveniles continue indulging in crimes and the crowded centers seem to fail in supervising and treating these delinquents.

America Shopping Cart Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

America Shopping Cart - Essay Example Thirdly, it saves on parking and petrol costs that would have been incurred if one went out shopping the traditional way. In addition, there are no salesmen involved in the process of shopping online, which implies that there are no additional costs. Moreover, online shopping provides a good shopping environment where one has the freedom to shop the way they wanted to shop. Finally, online shopping assists in the case of buying presents to people overseas if one shops online, which eliminates the cost of importation. Despite these disadvantages, online shopping has varying disadvantages. In this case, that it takes a longer period of time in delivery of products bought online than traditional shopping. Secondly, the shopper does not get the advice they may need on the product which is mostly provided by the seller unlike in the case of traditional shopping. Thirdly, the buyer may get the rejected products that have been brought back by other buyers. In addition, the buyer incurs expenses in postage of the product to his residence. It is not possible to test the products hence they is a high risk of purchasing a wrong product. According to (Popcorn and Marigold), traditional shopping was mainly used before the emergence and innovation of online shopping. Like online shopping, traditional shopping has some advantages although they differ from advantages of online shopping. First, the fact that one can see and test the product they want to buy before they actually buy the product makes an individual make an informed decision. Secondly, one gets the product immediately they purchase it, which is crucial when the goods are needed urgently. In addition, traditional shopping provides for direct communication between the seller and the client and this provides a better chance for bargains and in-depth details about the product. Moreover, this

Individual Project Unit 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Individual Project Unit 4 - Essay Example This creates a situation where a silent partner begins exerting their pressure on the company leadership (in this case a friend or family member) which can jeopardize future relations or future lending opportunities. Oftentimes, as well, because friendship and family relationships are usually quite informal, the receiver of the start-up funds will neglect to put any formal agreement into contract form. When this occurs, if conflict arises about the progress of the business, disappointment and mutual anger can occur, which could often cause internal conflict which is apparent to the customers, diminishing profitability when sales decline. Having identified the risk of relationship funding, it is important to identify other sources of financing in order to prevent damaging long-term camaraderie with the acquaintance lender. As such, the business had identified one possible option as a term loan, which is provided by a banking institution. Term loans involve a specific amount of money, usually loaned at a term of five to 10 years, based on projections of future profitability (Longenecker et al). Though this is probably one of the most stable methods of borrowing money, there are potential risks to the receiver of the funds. For instance, a business that takes out a term loan must have a competent method of forecasting cash inflows and matching future periods of revenue to meet the loans repayment terms. A business which does not plan accordingly will experience a cash flow crisis, potentially harming the future operating potential of the business. Another type of financing option is asset-based lending, which involves receiving a line of credit (usually from a bank) which is based on asset value (GE Capital, 1999). For instance, assume that the company maintains regular payment in accounts receivable or maintains inventory which, when resold, can be liquidated for

Minimalist visual artists and composers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Minimalist visual artists and composers - Essay Example main characteristics of minimalist art that I really like include simplicity of the content, absence of anecdotal content and narration, monochromatic surfaces, and emphasis on shapes instead of backgrounds. However, I do not like the absence of aesthetic qualities in the minimalist artworks. In case of minimalist music, the things I like the most include use of single pulse and rhythm, use of same beats, simple and repetitive harmonies, and static instrumentation. What I do not like about minimalist music is lack of a real melody in the songs. In minimalist compositions, a single effect is maintained all through the song, which sometimes appears a little boring to me. An example of this form of music is that of ‘The Desert Music’ by Stephen Michael Reich. In this composition, Reich has used the repeated chords, same harmonic material, same harmonic progressions, and the same text that reflect the adherence of Reich to the basic characteristics of the minimalist

Vector Graphics Essay Example for Free

Vector Graphics Essay Vector graphics is the use of geometrical primitives such as points, lines, curves, and shapes or polygon(s), which are all based on mathematical expressions, to represent images in computer graphics. Vector, in this context, implies more than a straight line. Vector graphics are based on images made up of vectors (also called paths, or strokes) which lead through locations called control points. Each of these points has a definite position on the x and y axes of the work plan. Each point, as well, is a variety of database, including the location of the point in the work space and the direction of the vector (which is what defines the direction of the track). Each track can be assigned a color, a shape, a thickness and also a fill. This does not affect the size of the files in a substantial way because all information resides in the structure; it describes how to draw the vector. Same as object-oriented graphics, refers to software and hardware that use geometrical formulas to represent images. The other method for representing graphical images is through bit maps, in which the image is composed of a pattern of dots. This is sometimes called raster graphics. Programs that enable you to create and manipulate vector graphics are called draw programs, whereas programs that manipulated bit-mapped images are called paint programs. Vector-oriented images are more flexible than bit maps because they can be resized and stretched. In addition, images stored as vectors look better ondevices (monitors and printers) with higher resolution, whereas bit-mapped images always appear the same regardless of a devices resolution. Another advantage of vector graphics is that representations of images often require less memory than bit-mapped images do. Almost all sophisticated graphics systems, including CADD systems andanimation software, use vector graphics. In addition, many printers (PostScriptprinters, for example) use vector graphics. Fonts represented as vectors are called vector fonts, scalable fonts, object-oriented fonts, and outline fonts. Note that most output devices, including dot-matrix printers, laser printers, and display monitors, are raster devices (plotters are the notable exception). This means that all objects, even vector objects, must be translated into bit maps before being output. The difference between vector graphics and raster graphics, therefore, is that vector graphics are not translated into bit maps until the last possible moment, after all sizes and resolutions have been specified. PostScript printers, for example, have a raster image processor (RIP) that performs the translation within the printer. In their vector form, therefore, graphics representations can potentially be output on any device, with any resolution, and at any size. Raster Graphics In computer graphics, a raster graphics image, or bitmap, is a dot matrix data structure representing a generallyrectangular grid of pixels, or points of color, viewable via a monitor, paper, or other display medium. Raster images are stored in image files with varying formats A bitmap corresponds bit-for-bit with an image displayed on a screen, generally in the same format used for storage in the displays video memory, or maybe as a device-independent bitmap. A bitmap is technically characterized by the width and height of the image in pixels and by the number of bits per pixel (a color depth, which determines the number of colors it can represent). The printing and prepress industries know raster graphics as contones (from continuous tones). The opposite to contones is line work, usually implemented as vector graphics in digital systems. What is the difference between vector and raster graphics? Answer: The difference between vector and raster graphics is that raster graphics are composed of pixels, while vector graphics are composed of paths. A raster graphic, such as a gif or jpeg, is an array of pixels of various colors, which together form an image. A vector graphic, such as an . eps file or Adobe Illustrator? file, is composed of paths, or lines, that are either straight or curved. The data file for a vector image contains the points where the paths start and end, how much the paths curve, and the colors that either border or fill the paths. Because vector graphics are not made of pixels, the images can be scaled to be very large without losing quality. Raster graphics, on the other hand, become blocky, since each pixel increases in size as the image is made larger. This is why logos and other designs are typically created in vector format the quality will look the same on a business card as it will on a billboard. Vector Graphics typically are generated using drawing or illustration programs (e. g. , Adobe Illustrator) and are composed of mathematically-defined geometric shapes—lines, objects and fills. Since vectors entail both magnitude and direction, vector elements thus are comprised of line segments whose length represents magnitude and whose orientation in space represents direction. Vector graphics usually are easily modified within the creating application and generally are not affected detrimentally by scaling (enlarging or reducing their size). Because vector elements are mathematically-defined, scaling simply requires modification of their mathematical locations. However, vector files do not support photographic imagery well and often can be problematic for cross-platform exchange. Vector graphics typically are saved as EPS format. This makes vector graphics ideal for logo design. Creating a vector logo is more difficult but the effort pays for itself when the vector logo file is sent to printers or sign makers etc. The vector logo can be scaled up or down with out losing quality and would enable smooth transition between various media. Raster Graphic Images are produced by digital image capture devices: digital scanners or digital cameras, or by pixel editing programs (e. g. , Adobe Photoshop). Raster images are composed of a matrix (grid) or bitmap of digital picture elements (pixels). Pixels are squares or rectangles described as black, white, gray or color. Raster images typically are saved as TIFF format, but can be saved as EPS as well. Whereas conversion from vector to raster is easily accomplished, raster conversion to vector is much more difficult (and often is not possible). Raster images typically are easily shared across various platforms, but can be more difficult than vector graphics to modify. As well, raster graphics are impacted by scaling. Creating a raster logo design using Adobe Photoshop might be ideal for web only usage but if you are serious about branding, then the resulting raster PSD logo file will be of limited use. When sent to a printer or sign maker and when they try to scale the raster logo, the quality deteriorates and pixellation occurs. Yes, agreed, creating the raster logo design in Photoshop would enable a designer to pile on stunning effects (such as drop shadows, beveling, blurring etc). But the final deliverable will have limited uses.

Effect of Vegetation on Slope Stability

Effect of Vegetation on Slope Stability 5.1 Introduction Incorporating the vegetation effect in slope stability has been used for many years in geotechnical engineering. The vegetation effect on slope stability usually ignored in conventional slope analysis and it is considered as a minor effects. Although the vegetation effect on slopes qualitatively appreciated after the pioneer quantitative research. The vegetation cover is recognized in urban environment and it is generally utilized along transportation corridors such as highways and railway, river channels, canals, mine waste slopes and artificially made sloping ground. There are some remedial techniques for soil stabilizations in civil engineering practice such as geosynthetic reinforcement or soil nailing are often used at slopes at great expense, but now many parts of the world considered sustainable alternative methods such as using the vegetation cover or soil bioengineering in civil engineering applications. This method reduces the cost and local labour force and it is environmental friendly method. The vegetation cover, the roots draw out moisture from soil slopes through evapo-transpitation leads to shrinking and swelling in soil. After prolonged wet and dry period, it is possible to foam cracks at dry period due to reduction of moisture content from vegetation covers. 5.2 Influence of vegetation The vegetation effect influence on soil slopes, generally classified into two types, they are mechanical and hydrological effects. The hydrological effect is responsible for soil moisture content, increasing the evapo-transpiration and resulting increasing the soil matric suction. Water is removed from the soil region in several ways, either evaporation from the ground surface or by evapo transpiration from vegetation cover. The process produces upward flux of the water out of the soil. The mechanical effects from the vegetation root responsible for physical interaction with soil structure 5.2.1 Hydrological effects The influence of vegetation cover in soil moisture content in different ways. The rain water evaporates back to atmosphere ultimately reduce the amount of water infiltrate into the soil slope. The vegetation roots extract moisture from the soil and this effects leads to reducing the soil moisture content. The reduction in moisture content in soil, it will help to increase the matrix in unsaturated soil or decrease the pore water pressure condition in saturated soil. Both of this action ultimately improves the soil stability. The vegetations moisture reduction ability is well recognized. The root reinforcement is most important factor, it is generally considered in vegetation effects on slope analysis, thought the recent studies shows the importance of hydrological effects on slopes by Simon Collision (2002). They studied the pore water pressure and matric suction in soil over for one cycle of wet and dry cycle under different vegetation covers. This result shows the significant effec ts of vegetation hydrological effects are soil structure. 5.2.2 Mechanical effects The vegetations root matrix system with high tensile strength can increase the soil confining stress. The soils root reinforcement is described with roots tensile test and adhesional properties. The additional shear strength of soil is given by the plant root bound together with the soil mass by providing additional apparent cohesion of the soil. The slope contain large trees need to consider the weight of the tree. The additional surcharge to the slope may give from larger trees. This surcharge increases the confining stress and down slope force. The surcharge from larger trees could be beneficial or adverse condition depending of the location on soil slope. If the trees located slope toe, the slope stability will be improved due to additional vertical load. On the other hand, if the trees located at upper surface of the slope, hence overall stability reduced due to vertical down slope force Furthermore, the wind loading to larger trees increasing the driving force acting on the slope. In the wind load is sufficiently large it may create the destabilizing moment on the soil slope from larger trees. Larger trees roots penetrate deeper strata and act as stabilizing piles. The effects of surcharge, wind loading and anchoring usually considered only larger trees. 5.3 Vegetation effects on soil slope numerical study In this parametric study, the effect of vegetation on the stability of slope has been investigated using the SLOPE/W software tool. In this study only consider the parameter root cohesion known as apparent root cohesion (CR). This coefficient incorporated with Mohr-Coulomb equation. 5.3.1 Model geometry 20 m 10 m 20 m 10 m 20 m Figure 5. 1 Slope geometry à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ §Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ½Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  20 kN/m3 c = 15 kPa à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ½Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  20 °In this parametric study 10 m height 2:1 homogenous slope (26.57 °) is used to investigate the vegetation effect on stability analysis, as shown in Figure 5.1. The soil properties are as follows: 5.3.2 Vegetation covers arrangement for the numerical model Case Slope geometry Description 01 No vegetation cover 02 1 m height vegetation cover-entire ground surface cohesion 1 kPa to 5 kPa 03 2 m height vegetation cover-entire ground surface cohesion 1 kPa to 5 kPa 04 3 m height vegetation cover-entire ground surface cohesion 1 kPa to 5 kPa 05 vegetation cover only at the slope surface 06 vegetation cover only at the slope surface and upper surface Figure 5. 2 Vegetation covers arrangement for the numerical model 5.3.3 The root cohesion values from previous researchers Source Vegetation, soil type and location Root cohesion c v (kN/m2) Grass and Shrubs Wuà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (1984) Sphagnum moss (Sphagnum cymbifolium), Alaska, USA 3.5 7.0 Barker in Hewlett Boulder clay fill (dam embankment) under grass in concrete block reinforced 3.0 5.0 et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1987) cellular spillways, Jackhouse Reservoir, UK Buchanan Savigny * (1990) Understorey vegetation (Alnus, Tsuga, Carex, Polystichum), glacial till soils, Washington, USA 1.6 2.1 Gray  § (1995) Reed fiber (Phragmites communis) in uniform sands, laboratory 40.7 Tobias à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1995) Alopecurus geniculatus, forage meadow, Zurich, Switzerland 9.0 Tobiasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1995) Agrostis stolonifera, forage meadow, Zurich, Switzerland 4.8 5.2 Tobiasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1995) Mixed pioneer grasses (Festuca pratensis, Festuca rubra, Poa pratensis), alpine, Reschenpass, Switzerland 13.4 Tobiasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1995) Poa pratensis (monoculture), Switzerland 7.5 Tobiasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1995) Mixed grasses (Lolium multiflorum, Agrostis stolonifera, Poa annua), forage meadow, Zurich, Switzerland -0.6 2.9 Cazzuffi et al.  § (2006) Elygrass (Elytrigia elongata), Eragrass (Eragrostis curvala), Pangrass (Panicum virgatum), Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides), clayey-sandy soil of Plio-Pleistocene age, Altomonto, S. Italy 10.0, 2.0, 4.0, 15.0 Norrisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (2005b) Mixed grasses on London Clay embankment, M25, England ~10.0 van Beek et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   Natural understory vegetation (Ulex parviflorus, Crataegus monogyna, 0.5 6.3 (2005) Brachypodium var.) on hill slopes, Almudaina, Spain van Beek et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (2005) Vetiveria zizanoides, terraced hill slope, Almudaina, Spain 7.5 Deciduous and Coniferous trees Endo Tsuruta à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1969) OLoughlin Ziemer à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1982) Riestenberg Sovonick-Dunford * (1983) Schmidt et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (2001) Swanston* (1970) OLoughlin* (1974) Ziemer Swanston à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ § (1977) Burroughs Thomas* (1977) Wu et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (1979) Ziemer à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1981) Waldron Dakessian*(1981) Gray Megahanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (1981) OLoughlin et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1982) Waldron et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1983) Wu à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (1984) Abe Iwamoto à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1986) Buchanan Savigny * (1990) Gray  § (1995) Schmidt et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (2001) van Beak et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (2005) Silt loam soils under alder (Alnus), nursery, Japan Beech (Fagus sp.), forest-soil, New Zealand Bouldery, silty clay colluvium under sugar maple (Acer saccharum) forest, Ohio, USA Industrial deciduous forest, colluvial soil (sandy loam), Oregon, USA Mountain till soils under hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and spruce (Picea sitchensis), Alaska, USA Mountain till soils under conifers (Pseudotsuga menziesii), British Columbia, Canada Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Alaska, USA Mountain and hill soils under coastal Douglas-fir and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), West Oregon and Idaho, USA Mountain till soils under cedar (Thuja plicata), hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and spruce (Picea sitchensis), Alaska, USA Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), coastal sands, California, USA Yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) seedlings grown in small containers of clay loam. Sandy loam soils under Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), Idaho,USA Shallow stony loam till soils under mixed evergreen forests, New Zealand Yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) (54 months), laboratory Hemlock (Tsuga sp.), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and yellow cedar (Thuja occidentalis), Alaska, USA Cryptomeria japonica (sugi) on loamy sand (Kanto loam), Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan Hemlock (Tsuga sp.), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga), cedar (Thuja), glacial till soils, Washington, USA Pinus contorta on coastal sand Natural coniferous forest, colluvial soil (sandy loam), Oregon Pinus halepensis, hill slopes, Almudaina, Spain 2.0 12.0 6.6 5.7 6.8 23.2 3.4 4.4 1.0 3.0 3.5 6.0 3.0 17.5 5.9 3.0 21.0 5.0 ~ 10.3 3.3 3.7 6.4 5.6 12.6 1.0 5.0 2.5 3.0 2.3 25.6 94.3 -0.4 18.2 * Back analysis and root density information. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   In situ direct shear tests. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ Root density information and vertical root model equations. Laboratory shear tests. Table 5. 1 Values of Cv for grasses, shrubs and trees as determined by field, laboratory tests, and mathematical models In this parametric study apparent root cohesion (CR) was varied over the following range: 1 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ CR à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 5 kPa ; CR à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‹â€  {1 kPa, 2 kPa, 3 kPa , 4 kPa , 5 kPa } Three vegetation root depth zones (hR) were used namely: hR à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‹â€  {1 m, 2 m, 3 m} A C BThe soil slope assumed as homogeneous slope. The case 1 soil slope (no vegetation cover on it) compared with the soil slope with vegetation cover on it. Figure 5. 3 Slope failure plane through slope region 5.3.4 Vegetation layer entire surface The case 2 condition applied the vegetation cover entire surface, the vegetation depth (hR) were 1 m and root cohesion were 1 kPa to 5 kPa. The same root cohesion applied to the case 3 and case 4 conditions. C (kPa) CR (kPa) hR (kPa) FOS Case 1 15 0 0 1.568 Case 2 15 1 1 1.571 15 2 1 1.575 15 3 1 1.579 15 4 1 1.582 15 5 1 1.586 Case 3 15 1 2 1.575 15 2 2 1.583 15 3 2 1.591 15 4 2 1.599 15 5 2 1.605 Case 4 15 1 3 1.580 15 2 3 1.593 15 3 3 1.605 15 4 3 1.618 15 5 3 1.630 Table 5. 2 Slope Analysis results for Case 1, Case 2, Case 3 and Case 4. Vegetation cover plays a significant role in slope stability analysis. The root cohesion experiments from various researchers over the past three decades results are shown in Table 5.1. In this research only consider the grass and shrubs root reinforcement. The apparent root cohesion range is 1 kPa to 5 kPa. If we consider the bigger trees in slopes need to consider its weight for slope stability calculations. The Table 5.2 shows the factor of safety analysis results for different root cohesion for different depths. Figure 5. 4 Different root cohesion (CR ) values for factor of safety for different root depths The analysis carried out with the software tool SLOPE/W. The graph shows the influence of vegetation cover i.e. root cohesion (CR) and its root depth (hR). The soil slope without any vegetation cover (CR = 0 kPa), the factor of safety is 1.570. This result shows the vegetation cover applied entire surface. The factor of safety linearly increase when increase with the root cohesion and root depth. The root cohesion and root depth has linear relationship with slopes factor of safety. 5.3.4 Vegetation layer only at slope surface and upper surface C (kPa) CR (kPa) hR (kPa) FOS FOS Case 6 Case 5 15 1 1 1.571 1.569 15 2 1 1.575 1.572 15 3 1 1.579 1.574 15 4 1 1.582 1.576 15 5 1 1.586 1.578 15 1 2 1.575 1.572 15 2 2 1.583 1.577 15 3 2 1.591 1.581 15 4 2 1.598 1.586 15 5 2 1.605 1.591 Table 5. 3 Slope Analysis results for Case 6 and case 5 The vegetation layer only considered at slope surface and upper surface, analysis carried out with SLOPE/W tool. The case 6 analysis results same as the case 2 and case 3. The results not affect with toe vegetation (section C at Figure 5.3) because failure plane only at section A and B section at Figure 5.3. So only influence with slope vegetation layer and upper surface vegetation layer in this slope analysis. The vegetation layer only at slope surface analysis results (case 6) compared with vegetation only at slope condition (case 5) shows lesser factor of safety values. The slopes upper surface vegetation has considerable influence in slope stability. 5.3.4 Vegetation layer only at toe C (kPa) CR (kPa) hR (kPa) FOS Vegetation layer only at toe 15 1 1 1.568 15 2 1 1.568 15 3 1 1.568 15 4 1 1.568 15 5 1 1.568 15 1 2 1.568 15 2 2 1.568 15 3 2 1.568 15 4 2 1.568 15 5 2 1.568 Table 5. 4 Slope Analysis results for Vegetation layer only at toe The SLOPE/W analysis shows (Table 5.5) for vegetation at toe Figure 5.1 section C. All the results for different depths and different root cohesion values are the same. The failure plane of this analysis only at section A B. So there is no influence with the toe vegetation. If the failure plane goes to section only toe vegetation influence in slope stabilization. 5.3.5 Slope failure plane through toe C B A Figure 5. 5 Slope failure plane through toe CR (kPa) Vegetation at toe hR (kPa) FOS 1 1 1.619 2 1 1.624 3 1 1.628 4 1 1.632 5 1 1.636 1 2 1.621 2 2 1.626 3 2 1.632 4 2 1.637 5 2 1.642 Table 5. 5 Slope Analysis results for failure plane through toe region, Vegetation layer only at toe This slope analysis failure surface was set through slope toe using entry and exit method. The Figure 5.5 shows clearly the failure plane, the failure region cover the entire region (A, B C). The vegetation layer applied at toe region for this analysis. The FOS increase with the increasing root cohesion and root depth, but there is no changes observed from the previous analysis, which is the failure plane only at section B C Figure 5.1. So the vegetation layer influent with the slope failure surface.

Criminology Essays Punishing Treating Preventing

Criminology Essays Punishing Treating Preventing Punishing Treating Preventing Punishing, treating and preventing crime An obvious question to pose regarding offenders is, how can they be prevented from recidivism? Examining the effectiveness of ways in which the judicial system responds to offenders will only enhance the understanding of how reoffending can be removed. One of the many ways in which a judicial system can respond to crime is by imprisoning an offender. Imprisonment can serve a number of possible functions including; retribution, incapacitation, deterrence and reform (Putwain and Sammons, 2002). Whether or not prison works is under constant review and there is much disagreement on which of the possible functions should serve its purpose (Bottomley and Pease, 1986; Home Office, 1994; Zamble, 1990). Together with questioning if it is an effective response to crime, there are numerous psychological effects of imprisonment (Dooley, 1990; Heather, 1977; Rasch, 1981; Zamble and Porporino, 1988). Besides imprisonment, legal systems all over the world have a variety of other means of punishing and rehabilitating offenders. Different countries favour different methods but in Britain and the US, the most common forms of non-custodial sentences are fines (Caldwell, 1965; Feldman, 1993; Walker and Farringdon, 1981), probation (Oldfield, 1996; Roshier, 1995) and community service (Evans and Koederitz, 1983; Schneider, 1986). There is evidence that, for some offenders, these forms of sentence are at least as effective as imprisonment and have a number of additional benefits. In particular, they are cheaper to administer than custodial sentences. You can get expert help with your essays right now. Find out more The various custodial and non-custodial measures employed by judicial systems are designed to serve a number of purposes of which rehabilitation is only one. The failure of judicial sanctions to make a significant difference to crime rates (Lipsey, 1992) has prompted a number of psychologists to put forward rehabilitation programmes based on psychological principles. These differ from judicial sanctions in two important ways (Putwain and Sammons, 2002). Firstly, their aim is solely to reduce the probability of reoffending, rather than exacting justice on the offender. Secondly, they are based on psychological theories of offending instead of the notions of ‘human nature’ on which judicial sanctions are often based. A large number of these interventions have been tried, however those behavioural and cognitive treatments for offending have had the most success for instance; token economies (Ayllon and Milan, 1979; Cohen and Filipcjak, 1971; Hobbs and Holt, 1976), social skills training (Blackburn, 1993; Goldstein, 1986; Spence and Marzillier, 1981) and anger management (Ainsworth, 2000; Novaco, 1975). All such measures, both judicial and psychological are forms of crime prevention insofar as they aim to prevent offenders from committing further crimes. However, this is only one approach to preventing crime and is not what is usually meant by crime prevention. Brantingham and Faust (1976) have made a useful distinction between primary, secondary and tertiary crime prevention. Primary prevention refers to reducing opportunities for crime without reference to the individuals who commit it. Zero tolerance (Bratton, 1998; Sherman, 1997; Wilson and Kelling, 1982) together with environmental approaches such as closed circuit television surveillance (Burrows, 1980; Horne, 1996), target hardening and defensible space (Newman, 1973; Feldman, 1993; Wilson, 1980) are examples. Secondary prevention refers to measures directed at those at risk of becoming involved in crime to prevent them from doing so. Tertiary prevention refers to preventing further criminal behaviour by those who have already offended such as anger management. It is evident that that the utility of judicial measures in preventing reoffending is limited. In particular, for most offenders, imprisonment seems to be no more effective than non-custodial sentencing, which may be seen as preferable, as it is cheaper for the authorities and less detrimental to the offender. There has been inadequate success with psychological interventions, though cognitive-behavioural techniques appear to be more effective than purely behavioural techniques. Finally, it appears that the large range of crime prevention strategies that reduce the incidence of offending have a key impact in decreasing crime in a particular area. Nevertheless, there is evidence that such crime is simply displaced to other areas. Rigorous enforcement of the law, even for minor offences suggests a reduction in crime but only if used in conjunction with other measures to improve the quality of policing in a particular area. Whilst all such measures have some impact albeit minimal in many cases, none can justifiably be called a solution to the problem of crime. References: Ainsworth, P. B. (2000) Psychology and Crime: Myths and Reality. Harlow: Pearson Education Ayllon, T. and Milan, M. A. (1979) Correctional rehabilitation and management: a psychological approach. New York: Wiley. Blackburn, R. (1993) The Psychology of Criminal Conduct. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Bratton, W. J. (1998) ‘Crime is down to in New York City: Blame the police’ in N.Dennis (ed.) Zero Tolerance: Policing in a Free Society. London: IEA Health and Welfare Unit. Cohen, H. L. and Filipcjak, J. (1971) A new learning environment. San Francisco: Jossey Boss. Bottomley, K. and Pease, K. (1986) Crime and punishment: interpreting the data. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Brantingham, P. J. and Faust, F. L. (1976) ‘A conceptual model of crime prevention’ Crime and Delinquency, 22, 130-146. Burrows, J. (1980) ‘Closed circuit television and crime on the London Underground’ in R.V.G. Clarke and P. Mayhew (eds) Designing Out Crime. London: HMSO. Caldwell, R. G. (1965) Criminology (2nd Ed). New York: Ronald Press. Evans, R. C. and Koederitz, G. D. (1983) ‘The requirement of restitution for juvenile offenders: an alternative disposition’ Journal of Offender Counselling, Services and Rehabilitation, 7, 1-20. Feldman, P. (1993) The Psychology of Crime. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Heather, N. (1977) ‘Personal illness in lifers and the effects of long-term intermediate sentences’ British Journal of Criminology, 17, 378-386. Hobbs, T. R. and Holt, M. N. (1976) ‘The effects of token reinforcement on the behaviour of delinquents in cottage settings’ Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 9, 189-198. Home Office (1994) Criminal Statistics. London: Home Office. Horne, C. J. (1996) ‘The case for: CCTV should be introduced’ International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention, 1, 317-326. Lipsey, J. W. (1992) ‘Juvenile delinquency treatment: a meta-analytical enquiry into the variability of effects’ in T. Cook (ed.) Meta-Analysis for Explanation: A Casebook. New York: Russel Sage Foundation. Newman, O. (1973) Defensible Space: crime prevention through urban design. New York. Macmillan. Novaco, R. W. (1975) Anger Control. the development and evaluation of an experimental treatment. Lexington: D.C. Health. Oldfield, M. (1996) The Kent Reconviction Survey. Maidstone: Kent Probation Service. Putwain, D. W. and Sammons, A. (2001) Psychology. London: Letts Educational Rasch, W. (1981) ‘The effects of indeterminate detention: a study of men sentenced to life imprisonment’ International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 4, 417-431. Roshier, R. (1995) A comparative study of reconviction rates in Cleveland.Middlesbrough: Cleveland Probation Service. Schneider, A. L. (1986) ‘Restitution and recidivism rates of juvenile offenders: results from four experimental studies’ Criminology, 24, 533-552. Sherman, L. (1997) ‘Policing for crime prevention’ in L. Sherman, D. Gottfredson, D. MacKenzie, J. Eck, P. Reuter and S. Bushway (eds) Preventing crime: what Works, what doesn’t, what’s promising. Report to the United States Congress prepared for the National Institute of Justice http://www.preventingcrime.org/ Spence, S. H. and Marzillier, J. S. (1981) ‘Social skills training with adolescent male offenders: II Short term, long term and generalisation effects’ Behaviour Research and Therapy, 19, 349-368. Wilson, J. Q. and Kelling, G. W. (1982) ‘Broken Windows’ Atlantic Monthly, 249 (3), 29-38. Walker, N. and Farringdon, D. P. (1981) ‘Reconviction rates of adult males after different sentences’ British Journal of Criminology, 21, 357-360. Zamble, E. (1990) ‘Behavioural and psychological considerations in the success of prison reform’ in J .W. Murphy and J. E. Dison (Eds) Are Prisons any better? 20 years of prison reform. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Zamble, E. and Porporino, F. J. (1988) Coping, behaviour and adaptation in prison inmates. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Virtue Ethics: Deontological and Eudaimonist :: Ethics Judgements Papers

There are two basic types of ethical judgments: deontological judgements that focus on duty and obligation and eudaimonist judgements that focus on human excellence and the nature of the good life. I contend that we must carefully distinguish these two types of judgement and not try to understand one as a special case of the other. Ethical theories may be usefully divided into two main kinds, deontological or eudaimonist, on the basis of whether they take one of the other of these types of judgement as primary. A second important contention, which this paper supports but does not attempt to justify fully, is that neither type of theory trumps the other, nor should we subsume them under some more encompassing ethical synthesis. There are two basic kinds of ethical judgments. The first have to do with duty and obligation. For example: "Thou shalt not kill, lie, or steal." "You just keep your promises." These judgments often uphold minimal standards of onduct and (partly for that reason) assert or imply a moral ‘ought.’ The second kind of judgment focuses on human excellence and the nature of the good life. These judgments employ as their most general terms "happiness," "excellence," and perhaps "flourishing" (in addition to "the good life"). For example: "Happiness requires activity and not mere passive consumption." "The good life includes pleasure, friendship, intellectual development and physical health." I take these to be the two general types of ethical judgment, and all particular ethical judgments to be examples of these. The main contention of this paper is that we must carefully distinguish these two types of judgments, and not try to understand the one as a special case of the other. Ethical theories may be usefully divided into two main types, deontological or eudaimonist, on the basis of whether they take one or the other of these kinds of judgments as primary. (1) In the main, ancient ethical theories were eudaimonist in both form and content (in the kinds of judgments and terms they took as primary, and in the questions they spent the most time investigating). Most modern ethical theories have been deontological, again in both form and content. (2) Aristotle’s central question is: What is the good life for a human being? Kant and Mill’s central question is: What are our duties to our fellow human beings? My second main contention, which I cannot fully argue for here, is that neither type of theory trumps the other, nor should we attempt to subsume both types under some higher ethical synthesis.

Female Depression among Group Home Residents Essay -- Social Psycholog

A greater insight into female depression could lead to improvements in group home settings. Specifically with a focus on youth (ages 12-17), the relationship between experience in the justice system will be gathered and interpreted with emotions and symptoms of depression. Critically exploration of the relationship between females who experience symptoms of depression and the justice system using respondents who reside in group homes will lead to a greater understanding of the causes and services that could be made available. Defining Concepts For the purposes of this study depression is â€Å"based on a predicted probability of a person experiencing a major depressive episode (Mitura & Bollman, 2004).†Questions which address â€Å"feelings of sadness, depression, losing interest in most things, feeling tired/low energy, trouble concentrating and trouble falling asleep over the previous 12 months† would be effective for gathering data specific to this study (Mitura & Bollman, 2004). Youth will be defined as participants between the ages of 12 and 17. Experience in the justice system is expanded to include personal encounters in both the capacity of a victim and offender. Group homes are â€Å"community - based homes for young people who are in need of group care (McMann Youth, Family and Community Services Association, 2009)†. Group homes in this study are characterized by the structured, planned and supervised nature of the programs within the home and based upon the assessed needs of the individual ( Ibid) Disciplines The disciplines related to the research being conducted include the fields of psychology and medicine. Psychology covers the aspects of the mind and behaviour of those suffering from depression. The medical field in also di... ...f replicated, similar results would surface (Berg, 2009). This research project will uncover opinions and experiences through interviews and potentially focus groups. Conclusion Females living in a group home setting lack research into depression related to the criminal justice system. Although the subject matter may evoke a great deal of personal hardships, the results would lead to a better understanding of the negative effects of our justice system on girls that do not have continuous parental support. The group home setting provides challenges with obtaining subjects, although with access to this vulnerable population, depression rates could be decreased. The experiences and emotions that come out of this study will provide a glimpse into to complex life of depressed Calgary girls living in group care and hopefully bring positive change to their lives.